Heath Ledger (Heath Andrew Ledger) è un attore australiano, è nato il 4 aprile 1979 a Perth (Australia) ed è morto il 22 gennaio 2008 all'età di 28 anni a New York City, New York (USA).
Heathcliff Andrew Ledger was born on April 4, 1979, in Perth, Australia, where a local theater company cast him in “Peter Pan” when he was 10. That role led to parts on children's television programs, and to the 1992 film “Clowning Around” and the television series “Ship to Shore.”
But the magazine Current Biography said he was also a champion at chess and go-kart racing as a youngster, and played field hockey until his coach forced him to choose between that sport and drama.
After appearing in a short-lived Australian television series, he moved to Los Angeles in 1999. His first Hollywood film was the teenage romantic comedy “10 Things I Hate About You,” a send-up of Shakespeare's “The Taming of the Shrew” in which he appeared opposite Julia Stiles.
He passed up other roles in teen films. “I feel like I'm wasting time if I repeat myself,” he said in a 2007 interview with The New York Times. He paid a price, running so low on money that, according to Current Biography, he was borrowing from his agent. The magazine quoted him as telling The Evening Standard in London, “I was literally living off ramen noodles and water, because I was sticking to my game.”
The payoff came in an audition for Mel Gibson's film “The Patriot” — Mr. Ledger's second audition; he had walked out of the first, saying his first was no good. He later appeared in “A Knight's Tale” and “Monster's Ball” in 2001, and in four films released in 2005: “Lords of Dogtown,”“Casanova,”“The Brothers Grimm” and the cowboy romance that established him as a major star, “Brokeback Mountain.”
“Mr. Ledger magically and mysteriously disappears beneath the skin of his lean, sinewy character,” Stephen Holden wrote in The New York Times. “It is a great screen performance, as good as the best of Marlon Brando and Sean Penn.” Mr. Ledger was nominated for an Academy Award for best actor, but the Oscar went to Philip Seymour Hoffman for “Capote.”
Still, Mr. Ledger was viewed as a significant talent on the rise. Although he was notoriously choosy about his roles, he was well-liked by directors and his fellow actors, an amiable presence on the set who gave little indication if he was experiencing personal turmoil.
“I had such great hope for him,” Mr. Gibson said in a statement. “He was just taking off and to lose his life at such a young age is a tragic loss.”
Mr. Ledger met Ms. Williams while filming “Brokeback Mountain.” They began a romance and moved to Boerum Hill, Brooklyn, where their comings and goings were widely noted in the New York tabloids and on celebrity-oriented Web sites. Ms. Williams gave birth to their daughter, Matilda Rose, on Oct. 28, 2005.
Until they separated last summer, he, Ms. Williams and Matilda were the darlings of Brooklyn, photographed around Boerum Hill. But Mr. Ledger often clashed with paparazzi — most intensely back home in Australia.
In January 2006, photographers sprayed him with water pistols at the Sydney premiere of “Brokeback Mountain.” Mr. Ledger left the country soon after, and was quoted as saying he was sick of Australia because the photographers were so intrusive. The paparazzi accused him of spitting on them, which he denied. Later that year, blogs reported that he and Ms. Williams had made obscene gestures at photographers in Mexico.
But a Brooklyn blog, the Brownstoner, proudly posted this comment from The Daily Telegraph after he and Ms. Williams bought their house near Smith Street: “Ledger, who's had a rocky relationship with the paparazzi in Australia, has found Brooklyn's residents to be a good deal mellower. ‘He's very nice and they're very sweet people,' said his neighbor Margaret Cusack. ‘We got to go to the premiere of “Brokeback Mountain” — he gave us tickets.' ” Reached on Tuesday after Mr. Ledger had died, Ms. Cusack said she would not comment.
After splitting up with Ms. Williams — and jilting Brooklyn — Mr. Ledger remained a favorite of tabloids and photographers. He was linked to the model Gemma Ward, and last month Page Six reported that Mr. Ledger and the actress Kate Hudson had been seen “kissing and making out” at a West Village restaurant. (Her publicist denied it.)
Mr. Ledger's death shook Warner Brothers, which is scheduled to release his next film on July 18 — “The Dark Knight,” a big-budget sequel to “Batman Begins.” Mr. Ledger plays the Joker, Batman's archnemesis.
The studio had already started to roll out a multimillion-dollar marketing campaign. The film's dominant marketing image, cheered by fans when it was unveiled late last year, shows Mr. Ledger in costume, painting the question “Why So Serious?” in what appears to be blood.
In a recent interview with WJW-TV, a Fox affiliate in Cleveland, about “I'm Not There,” in which he was one of several actors playing the music legend Bob Dylan, Mr. Ledger struck a philosophical note. He responded to a question about how having a child had changed his life:
“You're forced into, kind of, respecting yourself more,” he said. “You learn more about yourself through your child, I guess. I think you also look at death differently. It's like a Catch-22: I feel good about dying now because I feel like I'm alive in her, you know, but at the same hand, you don't want to die because you want to be around for the rest of her life.”
Da The New York Times, 23 gennaio 2008
The defining performance of Heath Ledger’s tragically foreshortened career — more or less equivalent to what Jim Stark in “Rebel Without a Cause” was for James Dean — will surely be the role of Ennis Del Mar in “Brokeback Mountain.”
A portrait of inarticulate love and thwarted desire, Ennis is a rich, complicated character succinctly sketched in Annie Proulx’s original short story and brought to heartbreaking life by the film’s screenwriters, Diana Ossana and Larry McMurtry; by its director, Ang Lee; and above all by Mr. Ledger himself.
Outwardly, Ennis presents a familiar image of rough-hewn Western masculinity, and the longing that surges under his taciturn demeanor does not so much contradict this image as help to explain it. Ennis’s love for Jack Twist, whom he meets tending sheep on a Wyoming mountaintop in the early 1960s, takes Ennis by surprise and throws him permanently off balance. His lifelong silence, the film suggests, is less a sign of strength than of cowardice, a crippling inability to acknowledge or communicate the truth of his own feelings.
What made the performance so remarkable was that Mr. Ledger, without betraying Ennis’s dignity or his reserve, was nonetheless able to convey that truth to the audience. This kind of sensitivity — the ability to signal an inner emotional state without overtly showing it — is what distinguishes great screen acting from movie-star posing. And while Mr. Ledger was handsome enough, and famous enough, to be called a movie star, he was serious enough, and smart enough, to be suspicious of deploying his charisma too easily or cheaply.
In retrospect the best thing that happened to him — the lucky break for his admirers, at any rate —may have been his disinclination to realize his apparent movie-star potential. He was the most likable of the young things in the “Taming of the Shrew”-derived teenage comedy “10 Things I Hate About You,” with his curly hair, high forehead and the permanent intimation of a smirk on his thin-lipped, angled mouth. And as often happens with young actors in Hollywood, his good looks and easy charm looked like a ticket to the commercial big time. Dutifully, but also with sparks of playful, eager energy, he played period golden boys in “The Patriot” and “A Knight’s Tale,” a misbegotten (but not entirely unenjoyable) entry in the ever-silly costume-action genre.
It is hard to know exactly when Mr. Ledger discovered his range, and set about trying to explore it, but it is clear that he covered a lot of ground in a very short time. He had a taste for portraying troubled, brooding, self-destructive young men, it’s true — the anguished third-generation prison guard in “Monster’s Ball,” the heroin addict in “Candy,” the unhappy film star in “I’m Not There,” in addition to Ennis — but the temptation to blend their fates with Mr. Ledger’s own should be resisted at all costs. Those roles should be seen less as expressions of some imagined inner torment than as evidence of resourcefulness, creative restlessness and wit.
Those same characteristics are abundantly evident in less well-known movies that should not be overlooked. Mr. Ledger was hilarious and eccentric in Catherine Hardwicke’s “Lords of Dogtown,” playing a shaggy old-timer on the Venice Beach surf-and skateboard scene, and affably mischievous in Terry Gilliam’s “Brothers Grimm,” alongside Matt Damon.
Ennis Del Mar is complemented and complicated by Casanova, whom Mr. Ledger played in Lasse Hallstrom’s unfairly neglected biopic-as-sex-farce, which came and went too quickly in late 2005, during the ascendancy of “Brokeback Mountain.” It’s not just that the flamboyantly heterosexual Casanova is Ennis Del Mar’s opposite in obvious ways. He is also a creature of pure whimsy, a lighter-than-air confection of licentiousness and gallantry.
Which is not to say that Mr. Ledger’s performance is frivolous. Rather it required intelligence, restraint and a tricky lightness of touch. Mr. Ledger had an unusual ability to mix lightness and gravity, an emotional nimbleness he displayed most fully in Todd Haynes’s “I’m Not There.” Of the six avatars of Bob Dylan in that film, his, an actor named Robbie Clark, is the most remote from Mr. Dylan’s various personae and closest to the prosaic world of love, fame and ambition. Robbie starts out full of youthful energy, heedless and in love, and finds himself a decade later adrift and disappointed, robbed of the happiness that early success had seemed to promise.
Again, it’s important to warn against looking in that film or any other for clues or portents. It seems to me that Mr. Ledger, in his choice of roles, was motivated above all by curiosity, and perhaps also by an impatience with the predictability and caution that can settle around the shoulders of talented young stars. In heroic roles like “A Knight’s Tale” or “Ned Kelly” he often seems bored, which may be why he so eagerly seized the chance to play the sociopathic Joker in “The Dark Knight,” the next installment in the “Batman” franchise.
The dismaying sense of loss and waste at Mr. Ledger’s death at 28 comes not only because he was so young, but also because his talent was large and as yet largely unmapped. It seems inevitable that he will now be inscribed in the cult of the beautiful stars who died too young, alongside James Dean, Montgomery Clift and Marilyn Monroe. Even before his death he had been ensnared in a pathological gossip culture that chews up the private lives of celebrities, and Tuesday’s news unleashed the usual rituals of media cannibalism.
Mr. Ledger’s work will outlast the frenzy. But there should have been more. Instead of being preserved as a young star eclipsed in his prime, he should have had time to outgrow his early promise and become the strange, surprising, era-defining actor he always had the potential to be.
Da The New York Times, 24 gennaio 2008
Nato a Perth,è un attore australiano che ha cominciato a recitare da bambino in teatro e a 19 anni è emigrato negli Stati Uniti. È asciutto, con la faccia un po’ Iegnosa, versatile: alla Mostra di Venezia 2005 lo si è visto come cowboy vittorioso nel film vincitore del Leone d’oro, Brokeback Mountain di Ang Lee, ma anche nel ruolo del titolo di Casanova di Lasse Hailstrom e come studioso barbuto accanto a Matt Damon ne I fratelli Grimm e L’incantevole strega di Terry Gilliam. Jake Gyllenhaal, 24 anni, coprotagonista di Brokeback Mountain, ha l’aria più dolce e sensuale, le labbra ben disegnate, gli occhi chiari dalle ciglia lunghe, fitte e nere degli americani di origini gallesi, irlandesi od orientali.
I due attori sono gli interpreti d’una storia speciale che nel film di Ang Lee legittima l’amore tra due di quegli emblemi americani di virilità che sono i cowboy. Non un incontro sessuale rapido e magari brutale, ma una storia sentimentale lunga più di vent’anni. Non una esibizione di strette sessuali (che, anzi, quasi non si vedono), ma una prova d’amore nei baci, nel corpo a corpo di lotte scherzose, nella nudità dei bagnì a fiume, nella felicità fisica. Non una passione gay, ma il legame tra due bisessuali che si sposano, hanno figli, divorziano, e ogni tanto si ritrovano per amarsi. I loro incontri non sono soltanto un’occasione amorosa ma anche un modo dì condurre per qualche giorno una «vita da uomini» sulla montagna, nella libertà della Natura, immersi in una bellezza che è pure una stupenda fuga dalle piccole vite con mogli che protestano e bambini che piangono tra le quattro pareti di casa.
I due cowboy protagonisti si conoscono nel 1963 sul lavoro: da soli, portano al pascolo sulla montagna di Brokeback nel Wyoming uno sterminato gregge di pecore. La solitudine, il freddo favoriscono l’intimità, ma l’amore ha i suoi screzi: uno vorrebbe una vita in comune, l’altro non se la sente; uno cerca nuovi incontri gay, l’altro no; uno muore in un incidente, l’altro consuma una morte civile di povertà e isolamento. Brokeback Mountain è un buon film (magari un po’ troppo sentimentale) e,soprattutto, i suoi protagonisti Ledger e Gyllenhaal sono portatori di un fatto sociale importante: far diventare un rapporto tra uomini una storia d’amore, forte, durevole, appassionata e inquieta come ogni storia d’amore.
Da Lo Specchio, 21 settembre 2005
THE neighborhood was nothing special, just another anonymous street in North London, and the corrugated-metal front door suggested the entrance to an auto-repair shop or maybe some kind of studio. But it opened into another world: a lush courtyard nestled inside a striking modern house with acres of white walls, exotic works of art and a roof garden, complete with burbling fountain.
Behind the door too was Heath Ledger, the current tenant of the house, making coffee in the glass-walled kitchen and presenting his own deceptive exterior. What you see is a strapping 28-year-old with sleepy eyes, an amused crinkly grin and out-of-control blondish hair, dressed on this particular occasion in a hooded sweatshirt and ripped jeans hanging low to reveal the waistband of a pair of light blue flannel underpants. What you get is a lot less obvious: a serious but hard-to-pin-down actor disguised as a California stoner. (He played one once, in “Lords of Dogtown.”)
Mr. Ledger has resisted typecasting since his first Hollywood film, the perfectly decent teenage-romance comedy “10 Things I Hate About You,” filled him with such foreboding about his possible future as a fluffy heartthrob that he turned down work for a year because all he was being offered were similar parts. Although he has since appeared in light, romantic-hero roles in films like “A Knight’s Tale” and “Casanova,” Mr. Ledger has also played a sensitive prison guard, a heroin addict spiraling out of control and, in a revelation of a part, a reluctantly gay cowboy in “Brokeback Mountain”: a hodgepodge of characters that are deliberately unlike one another.
“I feel like I’m wasting time if I repeat myself,” he explained. Nor is he ever happy with his performance, exactly. “I can’t say I was proud of my work,” Mr. Ledger declared of his latest role, in “I’m Not There” (Nov. 21), Todd Haynes’s strange, audacious new film, which attempts to get to the heart of Bob Dylan by dancing around him. “I feel the same way about everything I do. The day I say, ‘It’s good’ is the day I should start doing something else.”
In a film that uses multiple actors to portray multiple aspects of Dylan, Mr. Ledger plays Dylan the media superstar, a charismatic, swaggering figure who parties with celebrities, wears look-at-me-but-leave-me-alone sunglasses and watches his personal life collapse under the pressures of his public persona. Yes, but what does the film mean?
Mr. Ledger laughed and compared “I’m Not There” to a Rubik’s Cube, insoluble by mere mortals.
“I think it’s one of those films that you have to kind of accept and invite instead of trying to challenge and solve,” he said. “Bob Dylan himself defies description, and I think Todd was aiming to represent him. He was not trying to sum him up or define him.”
In a telephone interview from Berlin, where he was promoting “I’m Not There,” Mr. Haynes said that Mr. Ledger’s character was inspired by “photographs of Dylan taken in the mid-’60s when he was hanging out in New York locations with dark-rimmed eyeglasses and shooting pool or reading the newspapers in the classic Godardian striped crew-necked shirt.”
James Dean too. “Dylan was completely inspired by James Dean, and Heath has a little bit of James Dean in him, even physically, a kind of precocious seriousness,” Mr. Haynes went on. “As adult actors seem more and more infantile and refusing to grow up, middle-aged guys with their baseball caps, Heath is one of those young people who have a real intuition, a maturity beyond their years.”
Making the role all the more complicated was that Mr. Ledger’s character is meant, in a way, to be a Dylan twice removed. In the movie Mr. Ledger is not playing Dylan per se, but an actor famous, in the fictional world of “I’m Not There,” for portraying Dylan in his early years as a singer-songwriter of protest music.
But because Christian Bale, the actor who plays this early Dylan in the film, was scheduled to film his scenes after Mr. Ledger, Mr. Ledger said he was faced with “playing an actor portraying Christian portraying a Dylanesque character, and not being sure what Christian was going to do.” Or, to put it another way, “Who was I playing when I was acting?”
It all tied him in knots. “I stressed out a little too much,” Mr. Ledger said.
He tends to do that. He is here in London filming the latest episode of the “Batman” franchise, “The Dark Knight.” (Mr. Bale, as it happens, plays Batman; Mr. Ledger plays the Joker.) It is a physically and mentally draining role — his Joker is a “psychopathic, mass-murdering, schizophrenic clown with zero empathy” he said cheerfully — and, as often happens when he throws himself into a part, he is not sleeping much.
“Last week I probably slept an average of two hours a night,” he said. “I couldn’t stop thinking. My body was exhausted, and my mind was still going.” One night he took an Ambien, which failed to work. He took a second one and fell into a stupor, only to wake up an hour later, his mind still racing.
Even as he spoke, Mr. Ledger was hard-pressed to keep still. He got up and poured more coffee. He stepped outside into the courtyard and smoked a cigarette. He shook his hair out from under its hood, put a rubber band around it, took out the rubber band, put on a hat, took off the hat, put the hood back up. He went outside and had another cigarette. Polite and charming, he nonetheless gave off the sense that the last thing he wanted to do was delve deep into himself for public consumption. “It can be a little distressing to have to overintellectualize yourself,” is how he put it, a little apologetically.
Conducting a tour of the house, which he is renting for a few months, he made wry remarks about the art. One painting depicts a crowd of creatures who appear to be in hell, but who seem determined to extract as much sexual pleasure as they can from their eternity of free time;Mr. Ledger has turned another one around and hung it upside down, to no apparent ill advantage.
An open bag with clothes spilling out lay on the floor of the master bedroom. “I’m kind of addicted to moving,” Mr. Ledger said, perhaps on account of having had to shuttle back and forth after his parents’ divorce, when he was 11. He carries his interests around with him, and his kitchen table was awash in objects: a chess set, assorted books, various empty glasses, items of clothing. Here too was his Joker diary, which he began compiling four months before filming began. It is filled with images and thoughts helpful to the Joker back story, like a list of things the Joker would find funny. (AIDS is one of them.) Mr. Ledger seemed almost embarrassed that the book had been spotted, as if he had been caught trying to get extra credit in school.
“He’s very disciplined and takes it very seriously,” said Marc Forster, who directed Mr. Ledger in “Monster’s Ball,” in which he played a troubled prison guard. Mr. Ledger came to the part at the last minute, but caught on quickly. “Heath at the time was something like 22, and I thought: ‘He’s incredible. He’s so smart and so intuitive and so observant, and he really understood the part and the character.’”
Also on the table is a winsome photograph of Mr. Ledger’s daughter, Matilda, now a toddler. (Mr. Ledger met Matilda’s mother, the actress Michelle Williams, while filming “Brokeback Mountain” and fell into a very public whirlwind romance and then into loved-up domestication in Brooklyn; they both appear together in “I’m Not There” but have recently separated. He is leery of talking about their relationship, but heaps spontaneous praise on Ms. Williams’s performance.)
Mr. Ledger now lives in Manhattan, and, when he’s home, likes to play chess with the chess sharks who hang out in Washington Square Park; sometimes he beats them. But mostly he likes to hang out with Matilda— “it’s kind of like your whole body has a lump in its throat,” he said, of having to be away — and goes back as often as he can to see her.
Mr. Ledger was born in Perth, Australia, a place so far away, he said, that “sometimes when you’re there, it feels like the earth really is flat, and you’re sitting right on the edge.” He acted in some Australian soap operas before moving to Hollywood in pursuit of a girlfriend. (The relationship did not last.) He was cast in “10 Things” opposite Julia Stiles, starred in a brief-lived television series and began appearing in movies like “A Knight’s Tale,” playing a swashbuckling medieval lover-jouster.
“I was more concerned with having a good time than with focusing on work,” he said.
But suddenly he realized that he cared. “I started to look at the work and think, ‘Oh, God, maybe I should be taking this seriously, because people are going to see this,’” he said. “All I saw were mistakes — a lack of care, lack of attention to detail.”
Among other things, he began working with Gerry Grennell, his dialect coach, who has seen him through a dizzying spectrum of dialects and intonations. (“It’s rare that there’s a role that requires an Australian accent,” Mr. Ledger said.) Among his next projects are a film directed by Terry Gilliam, and another by Terrence Malick. Mr. Ledger is learning to play the piano and to sing. He also directs music videos, has a small independent record label called Masses Music in Los Angeles and is planning to direct a film at the end of next year.
One of the things that struck him most about the Dylan who emerges in “I’m Not There,” he said, was Dylan’s continual effort to resist easy categorization and his willingness to “recreate himself and not conform to people’s ambitions to put him in a box.”
That is how Mr. Ledger feels too, and he likes to keep an element of surprise, for the world at large and for himself.
“Some people find their shtick,” he said. “I’ve never figured out who ‘Heath Ledger’ is on film: ‘This is what you expect when you hire me, and it will be recognizable.’”
He continued: “People always feel compelled to sum you up, to presume that they have you and can describe you. That’s fine. But there are many stories inside of me and a lot I want to achieve outside of one flat note.”
Da The New York Times, 4 Novembre 2007
La notte degli Oscar, il 5 marzo, per la statuetta di miglior attore protagonista, Heath ledger dovrà vedersela con quattro “avversari” di tutto rispetto: quattro attori che hanno costruito, in altrettanti film, ritratti maschili di notevole spessore. Joaquin Phoenix, il Johnny Cash di Quando l’amore brucia l’anima, Philip Seymour Hoffman e il suo Capote, il bravissimo David Strathairn di Good Night, and Good Luck e il Terrence Howard di Hustle & Flow (l’unico tra i film i cui attori hanno la candidatura non ancora uscito in Italia). Vincerà? Difficile dirlo: I segreti di Brokeback Mountain ha avuto il maggior numero di nomiriation (8) e, sicuramente, qualche premio lo avrà. L’Ennis interpretato da Heath, tra i due cowboy quello che vive in maniera più compressa e sofferta la propria omosessualità, potrebbe portargli l’ambita statuetta. D’altra parte lui, australiano di Perth, abituato alla natura e ai grandi spazi, dichiara «Non è stato difficile portare sullo schermo la figura di questo ragazzo di ranch, in costante contatto con la natura e il paesaggio dei luoghi in cui vive. L’aspetto più interessante del film, però, è stato lavorare sui due personaggi e sull’espressione del loro amore, dal punto di vista fisico e psicologico». Il resto lo hanno fatto Ang Lee, il regista, e Jake Gyllenhaal, che ha avuto la nomination come non protagonista. Oscar a parte, questo 2005 è stato un anno d’oro per Heath - in realtà si chiama Heath Andrew -Ledger. Al cinema è stato Jacob ne I fratelli Grimm, visionario viaggio di Terry Gilliam nell’Europa del’Impero Napoleonico e, in una Venezia da cartolina, un Casanova - patinato e scaltro imbroglione disposto per amore al più grande sacrificio - nella megaproduzione firmata da Lasse Hallstrom che sarà nelle sale italiane dal 17 febbraio. Se consideriamo che, in fondo, ha solo 27 anni il ragazzo di strada ne ha fatta da quel lontano giorno in cui, a sedici anni, con una grande passione per il teatro e la recitazione, terminati gli studi, decise con un amico di lasciare Perth per Sydney. Dopo i primi ruoli in Tv, le serie Home and Away e Sweat, il primo film in Australia, Two Hands, e poi il debutto americano con 10 cose che odio di te (1999), seguito da The Patriot, dove è un eroe “storico” sul modello di Mel Gibson di Bravehearth, Monster’s Ball, Le quattro piume, I fratelli Kelly, dove interpreta il famoso bandito autraliano, e Lords of Dogtown. Il prossimo progetto, ancora senza titolo, è un film con la californiana Stacey Peralta. Dopo il West e la Venezia del Settecento un ritorno al presente.
Da Film Tv, 14 febbraio 2006
Ha ricevuto una nomination all’Academy Award per il suo lavoro nel film drammatico di Ang Lee Brokeback Mountain.Per la sua performance nel ruolo di Ennis Del Mar, Ledger ha ricevuto anche le nomination ai premi Golden Globe, Independent Spirit, BAFTA e Screen Actors Guild, ed ha vinto numerosi altri premi della critica.
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Nel 2007, Ledger ha recitato nel film di Todd Haynes Io non sono qui, per il quale ha condiviso il premio Robert Altman alla cerimonia degli Independent Spirit Awards del 2008.
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I suoi film precedenti comprendono: Candy, Casanova, I fratelli Grimm e l’incantevole strega, Lords of Dogtown, The Order, Ned Kelly, Le quattro piume, Monster’s Ball – L’ombra della vita, A Knight’s Tale, The Patriot e 10 Things I Hate About You, che ha fatto conoscere per la prima volta l’attore australiano al pubblico americano.
